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N1 · AdvancedMedium passagePassage #401
2

じんるいは、「というくうかんつくったときに、それまでぞくてき(注1)あるいはそんらくてきしゃかいくうかんとはほんしつてきことしゃかいくうかんけいけんしたそんらくにおいてひとびとは、ともともいくものとして、互のことそのまたおやだいことせんことまでじゅくしていることぜんていしたしゃかいてきかんけいけいせいするがいとうにおいては、ひとびとは、互のとくめいせいぜんていとしてにんどうせんによるコミュニケーションなかじょうではあいひとがらぞくことなどなにことぜんていしたしょうひんばいばいのうてきむすけいせいするさらにそれこうじょうしきも、そんらくひとひとかんけいとはちがひとびとぶんぎょうさいてきじょうたいじつげんするためのうてきつながりある

しゃかいくうかんけいけんは、じんるいにとってしゃかいイメージけっていてきし、したがってイメージひとびとは、ぶんじんというたんとしてしきするかいおおなりざいいちぞく(注2)しゅうだんものではなくじんものしきされさいのうにんげんぞくせい(注3)としてかんがようなったにんげんにも、うわさようこうとうコミュニケーション発達はったつしたが、しゃかいおおがたし、ふくざつするしたがってそれだけではじょうほうきょうゆうあんていせいかくだいしてくるマスメデイアは、だれのうあることげんするいちほうこうこうかいがたメデイアあるそのためがたコミュニケーションかん(注4)し、あるいはそれきょうするのうになっている

なりやすあきメデイアくうかんぶんろんいくつものわたしとのそうぐうによる

ちゅう1)ぞくきょうつうぶんいきてきしゅうだん

ちゅう2)いちぞくけつえんかんけいしゅうだん

ちゅう3)ぞくせいひとものそなゆうせいしつ

ちゅう4)かんするおぎな

Questions

0/3 answered
  1. 1都市の社会空間の特徴について、筆者はどのように述べているか。
  2. 2都市の社会空間の経験によって、人々の自己に対する意識はどう変わったか。
  3. 3都市社会におけるマスメディアについて、筆者はどのようにとらえているか。

Study this passage

Vocabulary16 words
  • 世代せだい
    • ·generation
    N1
  • 前提ぜんてい
    • ·condition; assumption; prerequisite; hypothesis
    • ·intention; intent; aim; goal
    • ·premise
    N1
  • 形成けいせい
    • ·formation; molding; making (up); taking form; giving form to
    • ·repair (e.g. with plastic surgery); replacement; -plasty
    N1
  • 街頭がいとう
    • ·(on the) street
    N1
  • 同士どうし
    • ·fellow; mutual; companion; comrade
    N1
  • 交わすかわす
    • ·to exchange (messages, greetings, arguments, etc.)
    • ·to intersect; to cross; to interlace
    • ·... with one another; ... to each other
    N1
  • 人柄ひとがら
    • ·personality; character; personal appearance; gentility
    N1
  • 分業ぶんぎょう
    • ·division of labor; division of labour; specialization; specialisation; assembly-line production
    N1
  • 自己じこ
    • ·self; oneself
    N1
  • ざい
    • ·fortune; riches
    • ·goods
    • ·incorporated foundation
    N1
  • 個々ここ
    • ·individual; one by one; separate; each
    N1
  • 口頭こうとう
    • ·oral; verbal; spoken; parol
    N1
  • 公開こうかい
    • ·opening to the public; making available to the public; exhibiting; unveiling; release (of a film, information, etc.); disclosure; publication
    N1
  • になうAs it appears here: になって
    • ·to carry on one's shoulder; to shoulder; to bear
    • ·to bear (a burden, responsibility, etc.); to take upon oneself
    N1
  • 備わるそなわる
    • ·to be furnished with; to be provided with; to be equipped with
    • ·to be possessed of; to be endowed with; to be gifted with
    • ·to be among; to be one of
    N1
  • 固有こゆう
    • ·characteristic (of); peculiar (to); inherent (in); endemic; unique (to); native (to); intrinsic
    • ·eigen-
    N1
Other levels75 words
  • つくるAs it appears here: つくった
    • ·to make; to produce; to manufacture; to build; to construct
    • ·to prepare (food); to brew (alcohol)
    • ·to raise; to grow; to cultivate; to train
    • ·to till
    • ·to draw up (a document); to make out; to prepare; to write
    • ·to create (an artistic work, etc.); to compose
    • ·to coin (a phrase); to organize; to organise; to establish; to found
    • ·to have (a child)
    • ·to make up (one's face, etc.)
    • ·to fabricate (an excuse, etc.)
    • ·to give a (false) appearance; to feign (a smile, etc.); to put on a show of emotion
    • ·to form (a line, etc.)
    • ·to set (a record)
    • ·to commit (a sin, etc.)
    N5
  • それ
    • ·that; it
    • ·then; that point (in time); that time
    • ·there
    • ·you
    N5
  • するAs it appears here: した
    • ·to do; to carry out; to perform
    • ·to cause to become; to make (into); to turn (into)
    • ·to serve as; to act as; to work as
    • ·to wear (clothes, a facial expression, etc.)
    • ·to judge as being; to view as being; to think of as; to treat as; to use as
    • ·to decide on; to choose
    • ·to be sensed (of a smell, noise, etc.)
    • ·to be (in a state, condition, etc.)
    • ·to be worth; to cost
    • ·to pass (of time); to elapse
    • ·to place, or raise, person A to a post or status B
    • ·to transform A to B; to make A into B; to exchange A for B
    • ·to make use of A for B; to view A as B; to handle A as if it were B
    • ·to feel A about B
    • ·verbalizing suffix (applies to nouns noted in this dictionary with the part of speech "vs")
    • ·creates a humble verb (after a noun prefixed with "o" or "go")
    • ·to be just about to; to be just starting to; to try to; to attempt to
    N5
  • 死ぬしぬAs it appears here: 死んで
    • ·to die; to pass away
    • ·to lose spirit; to lose vigor; to look dead
    • ·to cease; to stop
    N5
  • もの
    • ·thing; object; article; stuff; substance
    • ·one's things; possessions; property; belongings
    • ·things; something; anything; everything; nothing
    • ·quality
    • ·reason; the way of things
    • ·used to emphasize emotion, judgment, etc.; used to indicate a common occurrence in the past (after a verb in past tense); used to indicate a general tendency; used to indicate something that should happen
    • ·item classified as ...; item related to ...; work in the genre of ...
    • ·cause of ...; cause for ...
    • ·somehow; somewhat; for some reason
    • ·really; truly
    N5
  • その
    • ·that; the
    • ·part (as in "part two")
    • ·um ...; er ...; uh ...
    N5
  • また
    • ·again; once more; once again; another time; some other time
    • ·also; too; as well; likewise
    • ·on the other hand; while
    • ·and; in addition; besides; moreover; furthermore
    • ·or; otherwise
    • ·really; how; (what, why) on earth
    • ·some time (in the future)
    • ·indirect
    N5
  • するAs it appears here: して
    • ·to do; to carry out; to perform
    • ·to cause to become; to make (into); to turn (into)
    • ·to serve as; to act as; to work as
    • ·to wear (clothes, a facial expression, etc.)
    • ·to judge as being; to view as being; to think of as; to treat as; to use as
    • ·to decide on; to choose
    • ·to be sensed (of a smell, noise, etc.)
    • ·to be (in a state, condition, etc.)
    • ·to be worth; to cost
    • ·to pass (of time); to elapse
    • ·to place, or raise, person A to a post or status B
    • ·to transform A to B; to make A into B; to exchange A for B
    • ·to make use of A for B; to view A as B; to handle A as if it were B
    • ·to feel A about B
    • ·verbalizing suffix (applies to nouns noted in this dictionary with the part of speech "vs")
    • ·creates a humble verb (after a noun prefixed with "o" or "go")
    • ·to be just about to; to be just starting to; to try to; to attempt to
    N5
  • する
    • ·to do; to carry out; to perform
    • ·to cause to become; to make (into); to turn (into)
    • ·to serve as; to act as; to work as
    • ·to wear (clothes, a facial expression, etc.)
    • ·to judge as being; to view as being; to think of as; to treat as; to use as
    • ·to decide on; to choose
    • ·to be sensed (of a smell, noise, etc.)
    • ·to be (in a state, condition, etc.)
    • ·to be worth; to cost
    • ·to pass (of time); to elapse
    • ·to place, or raise, person A to a post or status B
    • ·to transform A to B; to make A into B; to exchange A for B
    • ·to make use of A for B; to view A as B; to handle A as if it were B
    • ·to feel A about B
    • ·verbalizing suffix (applies to nouns noted in this dictionary with the part of speech "vs")
    • ·creates a humble verb (after a noun prefixed with "o" or "go")
    • ·to be just about to; to be just starting to; to try to; to attempt to
    N5
  • なか
    • ·inside; interior
    • ·among; within
    • ·middle; center; centre
    • ·during; while; middle; midst; amid
    • ·interval; gap
    • ·mean; average
    • ·second (of three, e.g. sons, volumes); middle
    • ·medium grade; medium quality
    • ·red-light district
    N5
  • 家族かぞく
    • ·family
    N5
  • 知るしるAs it appears here: 知らない
    • ·to know; to be aware (of); to be conscious (of); to learn (of); to find out; to discover
    • ·to sense; to feel; to notice; to realize
    • ·to understand; to comprehend; to grasp; to appreciate
    • ·to remember; to be familiar with; to be acquainted with
    • ·to experience; to go through; to know (e.g. hardship)
    • ·to get acquainted with (a person); to get to know
    • ·to have to do with; to be concerned with; to be one's concern; to be one's responsibility
    N5
  • ひと
    • ·person; someone; somebody
    • ·human beings; mankind; man; people; humans
    • ·human (Homo sapiens)
    • ·(other) people; others
    • ·character; personality; nature
    • ·capable person; competent person; suitable person; right person
    • ·adult; grown-up
    • ·I; me; one
    N5
  • 違うちがうAs it appears here: 違って
    • ·to differ (from); to be different; to be distinct; to be unlike; to vary; to disagree (with)
    • ·to be wrong; to be incorrect; to be mistaken
    • ·to become abnormal; to go wrong
    • ·isn't it?; wasn't it?
    N5
  • 自分じぶん
    • ·myself; yourself; oneself; himself; herself
    • ·I; me
    • ·you
    N5
  • 多いおおいAs it appears here: 多く
    • ·many; numerous; a lot
    • ·large amount of; large quantity of; a lot; much
    • ·frequent; common
    N5
  • なるAs it appears here: なり
    • ·to become; to get; to grow; to turn; to reach; to attain
    • ·to result in; to turn out; to end up; to prove (to be)
    • ·to consist of; to be composed of; to be made up of
    • ·to be completed; to be realized; to succeed; to be attained; to be accomplished
    • ·to change (into); to turn (into); to transform
    • ·to come (to do); to begin (to do); to grow (to do)
    • ·to come to; to amount to; to add up to; to make
    • ·to play (the part of); to act as
    • ·to be used for; to be useful for; to serve as
    • ·to be promoted
    • ·to do ...
    N5
  • するAs it appears here: され
    • ·to do; to carry out; to perform
    • ·to cause to become; to make (into); to turn (into)
    • ·to serve as; to act as; to work as
    • ·to wear (clothes, a facial expression, etc.)
    • ·to judge as being; to view as being; to think of as; to treat as; to use as
    • ·to decide on; to choose
    • ·to be sensed (of a smell, noise, etc.)
    • ·to be (in a state, condition, etc.)
    • ·to be worth; to cost
    • ·to pass (of time); to elapse
    • ·to place, or raise, person A to a post or status B
    • ·to transform A to B; to make A into B; to exchange A for B
    • ·to make use of A for B; to view A as B; to handle A as if it were B
    • ·to feel A about B
    • ·verbalizing suffix (applies to nouns noted in this dictionary with the part of speech "vs")
    • ·creates a humble verb (after a noun prefixed with "o" or "go")
    • ·to be just about to; to be just starting to; to try to; to attempt to
    N5
  • なるAs it appears here: なった
    • ·to become; to get; to grow; to turn; to reach; to attain
    • ·to result in; to turn out; to end up; to prove (to be)
    • ·to consist of; to be composed of; to be made up of
    • ·to be completed; to be realized; to succeed; to be attained; to be accomplished
    • ·to change (into); to turn (into); to transform
    • ·to come (to do); to begin (to do); to grow (to do)
    • ·to come to; to amount to; to add up to; to make
    • ·to play (the part of); to act as
    • ·to be used for; to be useful for; to serve as
    • ·to be promoted
    • ·to do ...
    N5
  • するAs it appears here:
    • ·to do; to carry out; to perform
    • ·to cause to become; to make (into); to turn (into)
    • ·to serve as; to act as; to work as
    • ·to wear (clothes, a facial expression, etc.)
    • ·to judge as being; to view as being; to think of as; to treat as; to use as
    • ·to decide on; to choose
    • ·to be sensed (of a smell, noise, etc.)
    • ·to be (in a state, condition, etc.)
    • ·to be worth; to cost
    • ·to pass (of time); to elapse
    • ·to place, or raise, person A to a post or status B
    • ·to transform A to B; to make A into B; to exchange A for B
    • ·to make use of A for B; to view A as B; to handle A as if it were B
    • ·to feel A about B
    • ·verbalizing suffix (applies to nouns noted in this dictionary with the part of speech "vs")
    • ·creates a humble verb (after a noun prefixed with "o" or "go")
    • ·to be just about to; to be just starting to; to try to; to attempt to
    N5
  • いくつ
    • ·how many
    • ·how old
    N5
  • わたし
    • ·I; me
    N5
  • 持つもつ
    • ·to hold (in one's hand); to take; to carry
    • ·to possess; to have; to own
    • ·to maintain; to keep
    • ·to last; to be durable; to keep; to survive
    • ·to take charge of; to be in charge of
    • ·to hold (meeting, etc.); to have (opportunity, etc.)
    • ·to have "it"; to have that special something; to be blessed with good luck
    N5
  • 社会しゃかい
    • ·society; public; community; the world
    • ·social studies
    N4
  • 生きるいきるAs it appears here: 生き
    • ·to live; to exist
    • ·to make a living; to subsist
    • ·to be in effect; to be in use; to function
    • ·to come to life; to be enlivened
    • ·to be safe (in baseball, go, etc.)
    N4
  • おや
    • ·parent; parents; mother and father
    • ·dealer; banker
    • ·founder; inventor
    • ·(pet) owner
    • ·key; parent (organization); main
    • ·ancestor; forefather
    N4
  • 関係かんけい
    • ·relation; relationship; connection
    • ·participation; involvement; concern
    • ·influence; effect
    • ·sexual relations; sexual relationship
    • ·related to; connected to
    N4
  • ため
    • ·good; advantage; benefit; welfare
    • ·sake; purpose; objective; aim
    • ·consequence; result; effect
    • ·affecting; regarding; concerning
    N4
  • 変えるかえるAs it appears here: 変えた
    • ·to change; to alter; to transform; to convert; to turn; to vary
    • ·to reform; to revise; to amend
    N4
  • 機会きかい
    • ·chance; opportunity; occasion
    N4
  • 考えるかんがえるAs it appears here: 考えられる
    • ·to think (about, of); to think over; to ponder; to contemplate; to reflect (on); to meditate (on)
    • ·to consider; to bear in mind; to allow for; to take into consideration
    • ·to think (that); to believe; to hold (a view); to judge; to conclude; to suspect
    • ·to intend (to do); to think of (doing); to plan
    • ·to predict; to anticipate; to expect; to imagine
    • ·to come up with; to think up; to contrive; to devise
    • ·to consider (as); to regard (as); to look on (as); to take; to view
    N4
  • 文化ぶんか
    • ·culture; civilization; civilisation
    • ·Bunka era (1804.2.11-1818.4.22)
    N4
  • 人類じんるい
    • ·mankind; humanity
    N3
  • 都市とし
    • ·town; city; municipal; urban
    N3
  • とき
    • ·time; hour; moment
    • ·occasion; case
    • ·chance; opportunity; season
    • ·the times; the age; the day
    • ·tense
    N3
  • あるいは
    • ·or; either ... or
    • ·maybe; perhaps; possibly
    • ·some ... and others ...; sometimes ... and at other times ...
    N3
  • 異なることなる
    • ·to differ; to be different; to disagree; to vary; to diverge
    N3
  • 経験けいけん
    • ·experience
    N3
  • 共にともに
    • ·together; jointly
    • ·at the same time; with; as ...; including; along with
    • ·both
    N3
  • こと
    • ·thing; matter
    • ·incident; occurrence; event; something serious; trouble; crisis
    • ·circumstances; situation; state of affairs
    • ·work; business; affair
    • ·after an inflectable word, creates a noun phrase indicating something the speaker does not feel close to
    • ·nominalizing suffix
    • ·pretending to ...; playing make-believe ...
    • ·alias; also known as; otherwise known as; or
    • ·necessity; need
    • ·you should ...; I advise that you ...; it's important to ...
    N3
  • 他人たにん
    • ·another person; other people; others
    • ·unrelated person (i.e. not related by blood)
    • ·outsider; stranger
    N3
  • 相手あいて
    • ·companion; partner; company
    • ·other party; addressee; counterparty
    • ·opponent (sports, etc.)
    N3
  • なに
    • ·what
    • ·you-know-what; that thing
    • ·whatsit; whachamacallit; what's-his-name; what's-her-name
    • ·penis; (one's) thing; dick
    • ·(not) at all; (not) in the slightest
    • ·what?; huh?
    • ·hey!; come on!
    • ·oh, no (it's fine); why (it's nothing); oh (certainly not)
    N3
  • 商品しょうひん
    • ·commodity; article of commerce; goods; stock; merchandise
    N3
  • さらに
    • ·furthermore; again; after all; more and more; moreover; even more
    N3
  • 化しかし
    • ·confectionery; sweets; candy; cake
    N3
  • 組織そしき
    • ·organization; organisation; formation
    • ·structure; construction; setup; constitution
    • ·system (e.g. railroad, transport, party, etc.)
    • ·tissue
    • ·texture (of a rock)
    • ·weave (of a fabric)
    N3
  • 状態じょうたい
    • ·state; condition; situation; appearance; circumstances
    N3
  • 実現じつげん
    • ·implementation (e.g. of a system); materialization; materialisation; realization; realisation; actualization; actualisation
    N3
  • したがって
    • ·therefore; consequently; accordingly
    N3
  • 個人こじん
    • ·individual; private person; personal; private
    • ·natural person
    N3
  • 単位たんい
    • ·unit (e.g. meters, grams, etc.); denomination
    • ·unit (i.e. one comprised of many); group; whole
    • ·credit (in school, university, etc.); point
    • ·by the ...; in units of ...; in groups of ...; in amounts of ...; each ...; by ...; every...
    N3
  • 意識いしき
    • ·consciousness
    • ·becoming aware (of); awareness; sense
    • ·mano-vijnana (mental consciousness, cognizer of sensory information)
    N3
  • 集団しゅうだん
    • ·group; mass
    N3
  • 才能さいのう
    • ·talent; ability
    N3
  • 人間にんげん
    • ·human being; human; person; man; mankind; humankind
    • ·character (of a person)
    N3
  • よう
    • ·appearing ...; looking ...
    • ·way to ...; method of ...ing
    • ·form; style; design
    • ·like; similar to
    • ·thing (thought or spoken)
    N3
    • ·time; pause
    • ·space
    • ·room
    N3
  • うわさ
    • ·rumour; rumor; report; hearsay; gossip; common talk
    N3
  • 発達はったつ
    • ·development; growth
    • ·progress; development; advancement
    • ·expansion (of a typhoon, low-pressure area, etc.)
    • ·developmental disability; person with a developmental disability
    N3
  • 情報じょうほう
    • ·information; news; report; intelligence
    • ·information (data contained in characters, signals, code, etc.)
    • ·informatics (as a subject)
    N3
  • せい
    • ·nature (of a person)
    • ·sex; gender
    • ·sex (i.e. sexual attraction, activity, etc.)
    • ·gender
    • ·-ty; -ity; -ness; -cy
    N3
  • 拡大かくだい
    • ·expansion; extension
    • ·magnification; enlargement
    • ·escalation; spread
    N3
  • マス
    • ·to increase; to grow
    N3
  • がた
    • ·type; style; model; pattern
    • ·mold; mould; model; pattern; template; impression
    • ·kata (set sequence of positions and movements in martial arts); style (in kabuki, noh, etc.); form
    • ·convention; tradition; (standard) form; formula; usage
    • ·(set) size; inches (in sizes of displays, disks, image sensors, etc.)
    • ·(taxonomical) form
    N3
  • 機能きのう
    • ·function; facility; faculty; feature
    N3
  • ちゅう
    • ·annotation; explanatory note; comment
    N3
  • 共通きょうつう
    • ·common; shared; mutual
    • ·to be common (to); to be shared (by)
    • ·-wide
    N3
  • 祖先そせん
    • ·ancestor
    N2
  • 売買ばいばい
    • ·trade; buying and selling; trafficking (e.g. of humans, arms, drugs); dealing
    N2
  • つながり
    • ·connection; link; relationship
    N2
  • 原理げんり
    • ·principle; theory; fundamental truth
    N2
  • 強化きょうか
    • ·strengthening; intensifying; reinforcement; enhancement; solidification
    • ·reinforcement
    N2
  • 性質せいしつ
    • ·nature (of a person); disposition; temperament; character
    • ·quality; inherent characteristic; property; nature; (chemical) behavior
    N2
  • 補うおぎなう
    • ·to supplement; to make up for; to compensate for; to cover (a shortage, loss, etc.); to fill (e.g. a vacancy)
    N2
Grammar2 patterns

Example sentences are translated by AI.

  • ものとしてN1

    'On the assumption that…; treating it as (if)…', proceeding as though something were already the case.

    村落においては人々は、共に生き、共に死んでいくものとして、互のこと、そのまた親の世代のこと、祖先のことまで熟知していることを前提とした社会的な関係を形成する。

    In a village, people form social relationships on the assumption that, as people who live together and will die together, they know one another well, including one another's parents' generation and even their ancestors.

  • を前提として(をぜんていとして)N1

    States that something is taken as the premise or precondition for what follows — "on the premise/assumption that".

    都市の街頭においては、人々は、互の匿名性を前提として、見ず知らずの他人同士の視線によるコミュニケーションを交わす。

    On city streets, people communicate through exchanges of glances between complete strangers, on the assumption of mutual anonymity.

Other levels20 patterns
  • あるいはN22 times in this passage

    Presents an alternative or a possibility — 'or; or perhaps; alternatively'.

    人類は、「都市」という空間をつくったときに、それまでの部族的、あるいは村落的な社会空間とは本質的に異なる社会空間を経験した。

    When humanity created the space known as the “city,” it experienced a social space fundamentally different from the tribal or village-based social spaces that had existed before.

  • さらにN2

    Adds a further point or a greater degree — 'furthermore', 'moreover', 'even more'.

    さらにそれを恒常化した組織も、村落の人と人の関係とは違って人々の分業を最適な状態で実現するための機能的なつながりである。

    Furthermore, organizations that make such relationships permanent are unlike interpersonal relationships in a village; they are functional connections designed to achieve the optimal division of labor among people.

  • にしたがってN2

    Expresses that one thing changes in step with another, or that an action follows a rule or instruction, 'in accordance with / as ~ progresses'.

    都市の人間の間にも、うわさが飛び交うような口頭のコミュニケーションは発達したが、都市社会が大型化し、複雑化するにしたがって、それだけでは情報の共有に不安定性が拡大してくる。

    Oral communication, such as the circulation of rumors, also developed among urban residents, but as urban society grew larger and more complex, relying on that alone increasingly made the sharing of information unstable.

  • というN32 times in this passage

    Quotative marker plus 'say' that introduces a name, definition, or reported content — 'called', 'known as', 'that (one) says'.

    人類は、「都市」という空間をつくったときに、それまでの部族的、あるいは村落的な社会空間とは本質的に異なる社会空間を経験した。

    When humanity created the space known as the “city,” it experienced a social space fundamentally different from the tribal or village-based social spaces that had existed before.

  • 的(てき)N35 times in this passage

    A suffix turning a noun into a na-adjective meaning "relating to / -like / -ical" (一般的, 科学的).

    人類は、「都市」という空間をつくったときに、それまでの部族的、あるいは村落的な社会空間とは本質的に異なる社会空間を経験した。

    When humanity created the space known as the “city,” it experienced a social space fundamentally different from the tribal or village-based social spaces that had existed before.

  • において/におけるN32 times in this passage

    Formally marks the place, time, or domain in which something holds, 'in / at / regarding'.

    村落においては人々は、共に生き、共に死んでいくものとして、互のこと、そのまた親の世代のこと、祖先のことまで熟知していることを前提とした社会的な関係を形成する。

    In a village, people form social relationships on the assumption that, as people who live together and will die together, they know one another well, including one another's parents' generation and even their ancestors.

  • によって/によるN32 times in this passage

    Marks means, cause, passive agent, or a factor something depends on; 'by (means of)', 'due to', 'depending on'.

    都市の街頭においては、人々は、互の匿名性を前提として、見ず知らずの他人同士の視線によるコミュニケーションを交わす。

    On city streets, people communicate through exchanges of glances between complete strangers, on the assumption of mutual anonymity.

  • ためにN32 times in this passage

    marks a purpose ('in order to') or a cause ('because of / owing to').

    さらにそれを恒常化した組織も、村落の人と人の関係とは違って人々の分業を最適な状態で実現するための機能的なつながりである。

    Furthermore, organizations that make such relationships permanent are unlike interpersonal relationships in a village; they are functional connections designed to achieve the optimal division of labor among people.

  • にとってN3

    Marks the person or thing from whose standpoint something is judged or matters; 'for', 'to'.

    都市の社会空間の経験は、人類にとっての社会のイメージを決定的に変えたし、したがって自己のイメージも変えた。

    The experience of urban social space decisively changed humanity's image of society and, consequently, its image of the self as well.

  • としてN32 times in this passage

    Marks the role, capacity, or status in which someone or something acts — "as (a doctor / a rule / etc.)".

    人々は、自分を個人という単位として意識する機会が多くなり、財は一族や集団のものではなく、個人のものと意識され、才能は個々の人間の属性として考えられるようになった。

    People had more opportunities to become conscious of themselves as individual units; wealth came to be regarded not as belonging to a clan or group but to the individual, and talent came to be seen as an attribute of each individual person.

  • ときN4

    Marks the time at which something happens — "when X, Y."

    人類は、「都市」という空間をつくったときに、それまでの部族的、あるいは村落的な社会空間とは本質的に異なる社会空間を経験した。

    When humanity created the space known as the “city,” it experienced a social space fundamentally different from the tribal or village-based social spaces that had existed before.

  • 〜ていくN4

    Marks an action that continues/progresses onward from the present, or is done before moving away — 'to go on doing', 'to do and go'.

    村落においては人々は、共に生き、共に死んでいくものとして、互のこと、そのまた親の世代のこと、祖先のことまで熟知していることを前提とした社会的な関係を形成する。

    In a village, people form social relationships on the assumption that, as people who live together and will die together, they know one another well, including one another's parents' generation and even their ancestors.

  • などN4

    Lists one or more representative items and implies others of the same kind exist — 'and so on / etc. / such as'.

    都市のなかの市場では相手の人柄や家族のことなどなにも知らないことを前提とした商品の売買や機能的な結びつきを形成する。

    In urban marketplaces, people buy and sell goods and form functional connections on the assumption that they know nothing about the other person's character or family.

  • ようになるN4

    Expresses a gradual change reaching a new state or acquired ability, "come to / become able to".

    人々は、自分を個人という単位として意識する機会が多くなり、財は一族や集団のものではなく、個人のものと意識され、才能は個々の人間の属性として考えられるようになった

    People had more opportunities to become conscious of themselves as individual units; wealth came to be regarded not as belonging to a clan or group but to the individual, and talent came to be seen as an attribute of each individual person.

  • 間(あいだ)N4

    Marks a span of time or space throughout which, or between whose endpoints, something else continuously holds — 'while; during; between'.

    都市の人間の間にも、うわさが飛び交うような口頭のコミュニケーションは発達したが、都市社会が大型化し、複雑化するにしたがって、それだけでは情報の共有に不安定性が拡大してくる。

    Oral communication, such as the circulation of rumors, also developed among urban residents, but as urban society grew larger and more complex, relying on that alone increasingly made the sharing of information unstable.

  • ようだN4

    Expresses conjecture or resemblance drawn from evidence, "it seems / looks like".

    都市の人間の間にも、うわさが飛び交うような口頭のコミュニケーションは発達したが、都市社会が大型化し、複雑化するにしたがって、それだけでは情報の共有に不安定性が拡大してくる。

    Oral communication, such as the circulation of rumors, also developed among urban residents, but as urban society grew larger and more complex, relying on that alone increasingly made the sharing of information unstable.

  • だけでN4

    'Just by / with only' — a single small condition alone is enough to produce the result.

    都市の人間の間にも、うわさが飛び交うような口頭のコミュニケーションは発達したが、都市社会が大型化し、複雑化するにしたがって、それだけでは情報の共有に不安定性が拡大してくる。

    Oral communication, such as the circulation of rumors, also developed among urban residents, but as urban society grew larger and more complex, relying on that alone increasingly made the sharing of information unstable.

  • 〜てくるN4

    Verb te-form plus 来る, marking motion toward the speaker or the gradual onset of a state — 'come to do' / 'start to / become'.

    都市の人間の間にも、うわさが飛び交うような口頭のコミュニケーションは発達したが、都市社会が大型化し、複雑化するにしたがって、それだけでは情報の共有に不安定性が拡大してくる

    Oral communication, such as the circulation of rumors, also developed among urban residents, but as urban society grew larger and more complex, relying on that alone increasingly made the sharing of information unstable.

  • までN52 times in this passage

    Particle marking the spatial, temporal, or extent limit of an action — "until / up to / as far as."

    人類は、「都市」という空間をつくったときに、それまでの部族的、あるいは村落的な社会空間とは本質的に異なる社会空間を経験した。

    When humanity created the space known as the “city,” it experienced a social space fundamentally different from the tribal or village-based social spaces that had existed before.

  • 〜ているN52 times in this passage

    Describes an action in progress or the state that remains after an action happened — “is doing” or “is in the state of having done”.

    村落においては人々は、共に生き、共に死んでいくものとして、互のこと、そのまた親の世代のこと、祖先のことまで熟知していることを前提とした社会的な関係を形成する。

    In a village, people form social relationships on the assumption that, as people who live together and will die together, they know one another well, including one another's parents' generation and even their ancestors.

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