恐らくN2
Adverb marking the speaker's likely conjecture — "probably, most likely".
おそらくツバメたちは、町そのものの作りや、人間の存在が嫌いになったのではないだろう。
It is probably not that swallows have come to dislike the way towns themselves are built or the presence of humans.
ではないかN2
Rhetorically seeks agreement or expresses a realization — 'isn't it? / right? / surely.'
こういう事例を見ていると、自然保護とか自然との共生ということについて、少し考え直す必要があるのではないか、という気がしてくる。
Looking at cases like these, I begin to feel that perhaps we need to reconsider, at least to some extent, what we mean by nature conservation and coexistence with nature.
だってN2
Colloquial particle adding 'even/too', giving a reason 'but/because', or reporting hearsay 'they say ~'.
カラスやツバメのように、人間がいることをむしろ利用しているものだって、けっして少ないとはいえない。
There are by no means few species, such as crows and swallows, that actually take advantage of the presence of humans.
つつあるN2
Marks an action or change that is steadily in progress, 'to be in the process of ~ing / gradually becoming ~'.
都市周辺で急速に増えつつあるタヌキやキツネもその例である。
Raccoon dogs and foxes, whose numbers are rapidly increasing around cities, are other examples.
てはならないN2
States a firm prohibition — an action that must not be done — "must not ~", "it won't do to ~".
やたらと動物たちに遠慮することはないのかもしれないが、それぞれの動物にとってのこのキー･ポイントは侵してはならない。
Perhaps there is no need to be excessively accommodating toward animals, but we must not violate the key point on which each species depends.
まるでN3
Signals a vivid simile or comparison, usually closed by ようだ/みたい (or, with a negative, 'not at all'), 'just like / as if'.
まるで森や林の木の枝にとまるように。
Just as if they were perching on the branch of a tree in a forest or grove.
ためにN32 times in this passage
marks a purpose ('in order to') or a cause ('because of / owing to').
ツバメが人家の軒先に巣をつくるのは、スズメを避けるためだということを明らかにした研究がある。
One study has shown that swallows build nests under the eaves of human dwellings in order to avoid sparrows.
あまり〜ないN3
The degree adverb あまり, typically with a following negative, expresses a limited degree, "not very / not much."
スズメはふだんはあまり人間を恐れないが、ひなを育てるときは人間を避ける。
Sparrows are not usually very afraid of humans, but when raising their young, they avoid people.
というN32 times in this passage
Quotative marker plus 'say' that introduces a name, definition, or reported content — 'called', 'known as', 'that (one) says'.
昔、ツバメがたくさん巣をかけると、店は繁盛するといわれた。
In the past, people used to say that if many swallows built nests at a shop, the shop would prosper.
的（てき）N32 times in this passage
A suffix turning a noun into a na-adjective meaning "relating to / -like / -ical" (一般的, 科学的).
町が人工的にきれいになりすぎて、餌にする虫があまりにも減ってしまったので、町ではひなも育てられなくなったから、都会には棲まなくなったのである。
Rather, towns have become artificially too clean, causing the insects they feed on to decrease so drastically that they can no longer raise their young there, and so they have stopped living in cities.
あまりにもN3
Emphasizes an excessive degree that leads to some result, "so ... that / far too ~."
町が人工的にきれいになりすぎて、餌にする虫があまりにも減ってしまったので、町ではひなも育てられなくなったから、都会には棲まなくなったのである。
Rather, towns have become artificially too clean, causing the insects they feed on to decrease so drastically that they can no longer raise their young there, and so they have stopped living in cities.
についてN3
Marks the topic an action or statement is directed at; 'about', 'concerning', 'regarding'.
こういう事例を見ていると、自然保護とか自然との共生ということについて、少し考え直す必要があるのではないか、という気がしてくる。
Looking at cases like these, I begin to feel that perhaps we need to reconsider, at least to some extent, what we mean by nature conservation and coexistence with nature.
よりもN3
Emphatic comparison marking one thing as exceeding another — 'even more than, rather than'.
多くの動物たちはわれわれが思っていたよりもずっとしたたかである。
Many animals are far more resilient and resourceful than we had imagined.
たとえ〜てもN32 times in this passage
Concessive 'even if / even though' — sets up a hypothetical or fact that does not change the outcome.
自分たちの生活の基盤になる条件さえそろっていれば、たとえその条件が人工のものであろうとも、そしてそこをたくさんの人間がうろうろしていようとも、平気で棲みついてしまう。
As long as the basic conditions they need for life are in place, they will readily settle there even if those conditions are artificial and even if large numbers of people are milling around.
ついN3
Marks an action done unintentionally or on impulse, in spite of oneself — "can't help but, without meaning to".
自分たちの生活の基盤になる条件さえそろっていれば、たとえその条件が人工のものであろうとも、そしてそこをたくさんの人間がうろうろしていようとも、平気で棲みついてしまう。
As long as the basic conditions they need for life are in place, they will readily settle there even if those conditions are artificial and even if large numbers of people are milling around.
むしろN3
Adverb overturning an expectation to present the following as the more fitting statement; "rather / if anything".
カラスやツバメのように、人間がいることをむしろ利用しているものだって、けっして少ないとはいえない。
There are by no means few species, such as crows and swallows, that actually take advantage of the presence of humans.
決して～ないN3
Adverb pairing with a following negative to stress absolute denial, 'never / by no means / not at all'.
カラスやツバメのように、人間がいることをむしろ利用しているものだって、けっして少ないとはいえない。
There are by no means few species, such as crows and swallows, that actually take advantage of the presence of humans.
おかげでN3
Attributes a (usually favorable) result to a cause — 'thanks to', 'because of'.
人間がいるおかげで豊富な食物がたやすく手にはいるようになった。
Thanks to humans, they have gained easy access to abundant food.
によって/によるN33 times in this passage
Marks means, cause, passive agent, or a factor something depends on; 'by (means of)', 'due to', 'depending on'.
けれど、都市化によってツバメは餌を失なった。
Yet urbanization caused swallows to lose their food supply.
にとってN32 times in this passage
Marks the person or thing from whose standpoint something is judged or matters; 'for', 'to'.
彼らにとって重要なのは、水の表面張力だけである。
For them, the only thing that matters is the surface tension of the water.
ことはないN3
Tells someone there is no need to do something — 'there's no need to / you don't have to.'
やたらと動物たちに遠慮することはないのかもしれないが、それぞれの動物にとってのこのキー･ポイントは侵してはならない。
Perhaps there is no need to be excessively accommodating toward animals, but we must not violate the key point on which each species depends.
ばかりN4
Limits or emphasizes a thing — 'only / nothing but' — or after a past-tense verb means 'just (finished) doing.'
カラスやスズメばかりではない。
They are not just crows and sparrows.
ようだN4
Expresses conjecture or resemblance drawn from evidence, "it seems / looks like".
そのような鳥が、コンクリートのビルの上を何事もないように飛び、何の屈託もなく、ビルの一角にとまる。
Those birds fly over concrete buildings as though it were the most natural thing in the world, then casually perch on some corner of a building.
ということN42 times in this passage
Nominalizes a whole statement into a noun — 'the fact that', 'it means that'.
ツバメが人家の軒先に巣をつくるのは、スズメを避けるためだということを明らかにした研究がある。
One study has shown that swallows build nests under the eaves of human dwellings in order to avoid sparrows.
ときN4
Marks the time at which something happens — "when X, Y."
スズメはふだんはあまり人間を恐れないが、ひなを育てるときは人間を避ける。
Sparrows are not usually very afraid of humans, but when raising their young, they avoid people.
などN4
Lists one or more representative items and implies others of the same kind exist — 'and so on / etc. / such as'.
だから、人がひんぱんに出入りする店先などには巣をかけない。
Therefore, they do not build nests in places such as storefronts where people frequently come and go.
〜てくるN42 times in this passage
Verb te-form plus 来る, marking motion toward the speaker or the gradual onset of a state — 'come to do' / 'start to / become'.
話は逆であって、繁盛している店にツバメが集まってくるのである。
In fact, it is the other way around: swallows gather at shops that are already thriving.
ように / ようなN42 times in this passage
Likens or exemplifies one thing by another, "like / as / similar to (a)".
かつてのように、どの通りを歩いていても、子育てのために餌を持ち帰るツバメが飛び交う姿は見られなくなった。
Unlike in the past, wherever one walks, one no longer sees swallows flying back and forth carrying food home to raise their young.
てもN4
Concessive — 'even if / even though …'; the main clause holds regardless of the te-clause.
かつてのように、どの通りを歩いていても、子育てのために餌を持ち帰るツバメが飛び交う姿は見られなくなった。
Unlike in the past, wherever one walks, one no longer sees swallows flying back and forth carrying food home to raise their young.
〜てしまう / 〜ちゃうN43 times in this passage
Verb te-form plus しまう, marking an action as fully completed or done regrettably/by accident — 'end up ...ing' / 'finish ...ing'; ちゃう/じゃう is the casual contraction.
町が人工的にきれいになりすぎて、餌にする虫があまりにも減ってしまったので、町ではひなも育てられなくなったから、都会には棲まなくなったのである。
Rather, towns have become artificially too clean, causing the insects they feed on to decrease so drastically that they can no longer raise their young there, and so they have stopped living in cities.
とか～とかN4
Lists a few representative, non-exhaustive examples — 'things like X and Y', 'X, Y, and so on'.
こういう事例を見ていると、自然保護とか自然との共生ということについて、少し考え直す必要があるのではないか、という気がしてくる。
Looking at cases like these, I begin to feel that perhaps we need to reconsider, at least to some extent, what we mean by nature conservation and coexistence with nature.
必要がある（ひつようがある）N4
States that doing something is necessary or required — 'need to, it is necessary to'.
こういう事例を見ていると、自然保護とか自然との共生ということについて、少し考え直す必要があるのではないか、という気がしてくる。
Looking at cases like these, I begin to feel that perhaps we need to reconsider, at least to some extent, what we mean by nature conservation and coexistence with nature.
がするN4
With a perception noun (sound, smell, taste, feeling), expresses that such a sensation occurs — 'there is a smell/sound', 'I sense that'.
こういう事例を見ていると、自然保護とか自然との共生ということについて、少し考え直す必要があるのではないか、という気がしてくる。
Looking at cases like these, I begin to feel that perhaps we need to reconsider, at least to some extent, what we mean by nature conservation and coexistence with nature.
〜ていたN4
The past progressive/continuous — an action that was ongoing or a state that held in the past — 'was (do)ing'.
多くの動物たちはわれわれが思っていたよりもずっとしたたかである。
Many animals are far more resilient and resourceful than we had imagined.
ようになるN4
Expresses a gradual change reaching a new state or acquired ability, "come to / become able to".
人間がいるおかげで豊富な食物がたやすく手にはいるようになった。
Thanks to humans, they have gained easy access to abundant food.
たらN4
Conditional/temporal ending on the plain-past stem meaning that once or if the first action happens, the second follows ('if / once / when ... then').
そうなったら出ていく他はない。
Once that happens, they have no choice but to leave.
〜ていくN4
Marks an action that continues/progresses onward from the present, or is done before moving away — 'to go on doing', 'to do and go'.
そうなったら出ていく他はない。
Once that happens, they have no choice but to leave.
だけでN4
'Just by / with only' — a single small condition alone is enough to produce the result.
彼らにとって重要なのは、水の表面張力だけである。
For them, the only thing that matters is the surface tension of the water.
かもしれないN4
Expresses possibility or conjecture — 'might', 'maybe', 'perhaps'.
やたらと動物たちに遠慮することはないのかもしれないが、それぞれの動物にとってのこのキー･ポイントは侵してはならない。
Perhaps there is no need to be excessively accommodating toward animals, but we must not violate the key point on which each species depends.
〜ているN58 times in this passage
Describes an action in progress or the state that remains after an action happened — “is doing” or “is in the state of having done”.
眺めていると、東京の空には意外にたくさんの鳥が飛んでいる。
Looking up, I realize that surprisingly many birds are flying in the skies over Tokyo.
じゃない・ではないN53 times in this passage
Negates a noun or na-adjective with the copula, "is not / am not".
カラスやスズメばかりではない。
They are not just crows and sparrows.
にするN52 times in this passage
To decide on or turn something into a given state or choice, 'to make it ~ / to go with ~.'
ツバメが人家の軒先に巣をつくるのは、スズメを避けるためだということを明らかにした研究がある。
One study has shown that swallows build nests under the eaves of human dwellings in order to avoid sparrows.
がありますN5
States the existence or possession of an inanimate thing, "there is / to have".
ツバメが人家の軒先に巣をつくるのは、スズメを避けるためだということを明らかにした研究がある。
One study has shown that swallows build nests under the eaves of human dwellings in order to avoid sparrows.
のでN53 times in this passage
Gives a reason or cause with a soft, objective/polite nuance — 'because / since'.
話は逆であって、繁盛している店にツバメが集まってくるのである。
In fact, it is the other way around: swallows gather at shops that are already thriving.
だろうN5
Presumptive expressing conjecture — 'probably', 'I think', or seeking agreement 'right?'; plain だろう / polite でしょう.
おそらくツバメたちは、町そのものの作りや、人間の存在が嫌いになったのではないだろう。
It is probably not that swallows have come to dislike the way towns themselves are built or the presence of humans.
すぎるN5
Attaches to a verb or adjective stem to mean the action or quality is excessive, 'too much / overly ~'.
町が人工的にきれいになりすぎて、餌にする虫があまりにも減ってしまったので、町ではひなも育てられなくなったから、都会には棲まなくなったのである。
Rather, towns have become artificially too clean, causing the insects they feed on to decrease so drastically that they can no longer raise their young there, and so they have stopped living in cities.
そしてN5
Additive/sequential conjunction joining clauses, 'and / and then'.
自分たちの生活の基盤になる条件さえそろっていれば、たとえその条件が人工のものであろうとも、そしてそこをたくさんの人間がうろうろしていようとも、平気で棲みついてしまう。
As long as the basic conditions they need for life are in place, they will readily settle there even if those conditions are artificial and even if large numbers of people are milling around.
けれどもN5
More formal contrastive conjunction linking two clauses — "but / however / although."
けれど、都市化によってツバメは餌を失なった。
Yet urbanization caused swallows to lose their food supply.
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